Why Can’t I Add a Small File to a USB Drive?

Problem: You are trying to copy a small file to a USB device with lots of room on it but can’t. Why not?

The most likely answer is that the root directory of the USB device is full. USB devices are typically formatted using the FAT file system to allow for maximum compatibility. When originally designed, the FAT file system had file names consisting of eight character names with three character extensions, the so-called 8.3 format. When Windows 95 came out, Microsoft wanted to have it handle longer and more descriptive file names but was basically stuck with the FAT file system. So, they came up with VFAT where, by using a trick, they could put long file names into the directory by taking up several directory entries for a single file name.

But, this causes some unexpected problems with FAT devices. The number of directory entries in a FAT file system is limited in the root directory of the device. This table shows the limits…

Type of Storage	Max Root Directory Entries
360 kB 5.25″ Floppy Disk	112
720 kB 3.5″ Floppy Disk	112
1.2 MB 5.25″ Floppy Disk	224
1.44 MB 3.5″ Floppy Disk	224
2.88 MB 3.5″ Floppy Disk	448
Hard Disk	512

In general, USB devices would be considered hard disks under this system and be limited to 512 root directory entries. But, that doesn’t mean you can put 512 files in the root directory of the device. Remember the VFAT that uses a trick for long file names? Well, the trick is to use multiple spots in the directory for the longer file names and the longer the file name, the more directory entries it uses. So, if you have enough long file names in the root directory of the device, even though you have not reached your 512 file maximum, the root directory can still be full and not able to accept more files; no matter how much free space there is on the device.

The extra directory entries are tagged as read-only, hidden, system, and volume label attributes. This combination is generally ignored by DOS as it is non-standard but, at the same time, the markings tell DOS that the directory entry is occupied. This is a very unusual solution to a difficult problem and therefore sometimes causes unanticipated problems. One of these is the root directory full problem described here.

OK, how do you fix it? Well, you can’t fix the basis of the problem; that’s written into the file system. However, you can work around it. Subdirectories do not have the limits of the root directory as they expand as needed. So, the workaround is to remove at least one file from the affected device and then create a subdirectory (folder) on the device. Copy all new files (and maybe some or all of the old files) into the subdirectory. Problem solved and you can now fill the device as full as you can with files.

How Do I Set a System Restore Point?

Note: This article shows techniques for Windows XP. It will be updated for Windows Vista soon. (For the impatient: Use the same menu options as below. The utility that pops up differs but is pretty obvious; just be certain to click on the open System Protection link and then close the utility after the System Protection tab pops up.)

Before changing your system settings you should always set a System Restore Point in order to make recovery easier in case of problems. While Windows XP will set these points automatically at various times; setting a specific point can be useful if there are things you’ve done after Windows sets its automatic point that you want to keep. Recovery to a set System Restore Point can cause data loss from that point foward as that’s the purpose of the restore point: to restore the system to a particular point in time.

To set a System Restore Point…

• Open the Start menu
• Open the Programs menu
• Open the Accessories menu
• Open the System Tools menu
• Finally, start System Restore

• Pick the option for setting a System Restore Point and click on the Next button

• Fill in a name for the restore point so you can find it and click on the Create button

• Click on the Close button when done

If you need to restore the system to a particular point or change the options Windows uses to set restore points use the System Restore tool as well.

Hardware Threats

Hardware problems are all too common. We all know that when a PC or disk gets old, it might start acting erratically and damage some data before it totally dies. Unfortunately, hardware errors frequently damage data on even young PCs and disks. Here are some examples.

Power Faults

Your PC is busy writing data to the disk and the lights go out! “Arghhhh!” Is everything OK? Maybe so, maybe not; it’s vital to know for sure if anything was damaged.

Other power problems of a similar nature would include brownouts, voltage spikes, and frequency shifts. All can cause data problems, particularly if they occur when data is being written to disk (data in memory generally does not get corrupted by power problems; it just gets erased if the problems are serious enough).

• Brownout: Lower voltages at electrical outlets. Usually they are caused by an extraordinary drain on the power system. Frequently you will see a brownout during a heat wave when more people than normal have air conditioners on full. Sometimes these power shortages will be “rolling” across the area giving everyone a temporary brownout. Maybe you’ll get yours just as that important file is being written to disk.
• Voltage Spikes: Temporary voltage increases are fairly common. Large motors or circuit breakers in industry can put them on the electrical line. Sudden losses (e.g., a driver hits a power pole) can causes spikes as the circuits balance. An appliance in your home can cause a spike, particularly with older wiring. Lightning can put large spikes on power lines. And, the list goes on. In addition to current backups and integrity information for your software and data files, including a hardware voltage spike protection device between the wall and your computer hardware (don’t forget the printer and monitor) can be very helpful.
• Frequency Shifts: While infrequent, if the line frequency varies from the normal 60 Hertz (or 50 Hertz in some countries), the power supply on the computer can be affected and this, in turn, can reflect back into the computer causing data loss.

Solution: Consider a combined surge protector and uninterruptible power supply.

Age

It’s not magic; as computers age they tend to fail more often. Electronic components are stressed over time as they heat up and cool down. Mechanical components simply wear out. Some of these failures will be dramatic; something will just stop working. Some, however, can be slow and not obvious. Regrettably, it’s not a question of “if”, but “when” in regard to equipment failure.

Solution: Keep an eye on the specials after three to five years.

Incompatibilities

You can have hardware problems on a perfectly healthy PC if you have devices installed that do not properly share interrupts. Sometimes problems are immediately obvious, other times they are subtle and depend upon certain events to happen at just the wrong time, then suddenly strange things happen! (Software can do this too!)

Solution: Make a really good backup before installing anything (hardware or software) so you can revert the system back to a stable state should something crop up.

Finger Faults

(Typos and “OOPS! I didn’t mean to do that!”)

These are an all too frequent cause of data corruption. This commonly happens when you are intending to delete or replace one file but actually get another. By using wild cards, you may experience a really “wild” time. “Hmmm I thought I deleted all the *.BAK files; but they’re still here; something was deleted; what was it? Or was I in the other directory?” Of course if you’re a programmer or if you use sophisticated tools like a sector editor, then your fingers can really get you into trouble!

Another finger fault problem arises with touchpads below the space bar on notebook computers. It’s very easy to brush the touchpad when you are typing away and suddenly find yourself entering characters in a screen location very different from where you were before you touched the pad.

Solution: Be careful and look up now and again to make certain your cursor is where you want it.

Malicious or Careless Damage

Someone may accidentally or deliberately delete or change a file on your PC when you’re not around. If you don’t keep your PC locked in a safe, then this is a risk. Who knows what was changed or deleted? Wouldn’t it be nice to know if anything changed over the weekend? Most of this type of damage is done unintentionally by someone you probably know. This person didn’t mean to cause trouble; they simply didn’t know what they were doing when they used your PC.

Solution: Never run the computer as an administrative user and have guest accounts available for others who use the computer. Keep up-to-date backups as well.

Typhoid Mary

One possible source for computer infections is the Customer Engineer (CE), or repairman. When a CE comes for a service call, they will almost always run a diagnostic program from diskette. It’s very easy for these diskettes to become infected and spread the infection to your computer. Sales representatives showing demonstrations via floppy disks are also possibly spreading viruses. Always check your system after other people have placed their floppy disk into it. (Better yet, if you can, check their disk with up-to-date anti-virus software before anything is run.)

Solution: Insist on testing their disk before use or make certain they’ve used an up-to-date anti-virus before coming to your location.

Magnetic Zaps

Computer data is generally stored as a series of magnetic changes on disks. While hard disks are generally safe from most magnetic threats because they are encased within the computer compartment, floppy disks are highly vulnerable to magnets. The obvious threat would be to post a floppy disk to the refrigerator with a magnet; but there are many other, more subtle, threats.

Some of the more subtle sources of magnetism include:

• Computer Monitor. Don’t put floppy disks anywhere near the monitor; it generates a magnetic field. (Generally applies to the older CRT displays.)
• Telephone. When ringing, telephones (particularly older phones with a bell) generate a magnetic field.
• Bottom Desk Drawer. While the desk drawer does not generate a magnetic field, the vacuum cleaner that the maintenance people slide under the desk to clean the floor does.
• Bottom Bookcase Shelf and File Cabinet Drawer. Same comment as the desk drawer just above.
• Pets. Pet fur generates a strong electrostatic charge which, if discharged through a disk, can affect files on the disk. Instead of “The dog ate my homework,” today it could just as easily be: “The cat sat on my homework.” (I once had a student where this exact problem happened; a cat sat on her floppy disk and static wiped out the data on the disk.)

Solution: Stay away from magnets or sources of static of all kinds when working with a computer.

Bottom line: There are tools to assist in recovery from disk problems, but how do you know all the data is OK? These tools do not always recover good copies of the original files. Active action on your part before disaster strikes is your best defense. It’s best to have a good, current backup and, for better protection, a complete up-to-date integrity-check map of everything on your disk.

Summary

• There are many different kinds of hardware threats to your data. Some include:
  • Power faults
  • Age
  • Equipment incompatibilities
  • Typos
  • Accidental or deliberate damage
  • The Customer Engineer or friendly salesperson
  • Problems with magnets and/or sources of static electricity
• Active action on your part can help you identify problems and, perhaps, head them off early.

How Do I Read an Internet Product Page

First, and foremost, keep in mind that the sole purpose of a product page found on the Internet at a product site is to sell you something. Free stuff is available but the page(s) that describe it are usually quite clear. Sale pages, however, will go to great lengths to describe features, use superlatives, have come-ons, and maybe even mask the fact that money will be asked for and/or how much the product costs.

Second, and maybe even more important, is that words mean things; specific things.

For example, a “free scan” is just that: a free scan. There no promise in those two words to fixanything that the scan uncovers. This is an important concept as come-ons like free scans are often used to show errors that are then used to justify why a product should be purchased to fix those errors. There is nothing wrong with this and it’s not bait-and-switch as the words did not say or imply there would be a fix; that came from your interpretation of the words and perhaps the surrounding text on the product page. In short, it’s a meaning that you put on the words and not a meaning in the words themselves.

In line with the words mean things concept, product endorsements on the product page may or may not be helpful. Providers are fond of displaying ringing endorsements; maybe even with pictures of the people and graphic signatures. Such endorsements, however, are almost universally giving praise to the product without any details whatsoever about how the product specifically helped in a given situation. Thus, while it might be useful to know that so-and-so finds the product useful; that knowledge is tempered by the fact that you have no idea why so-and-so found the product useful. So, if so-and-so praises the product for some unnamed purpose you may have an entirely different purpose in mind for the software and the endorsement therefore would not apply to you. But, you rarely have enough information to know that. So, while you may read product endorsements, give them little weight in your purchase consideration unless you personally know one of the people quoted in which case you’ll want to ask them directly about the product.

Similarly, look carefully for use of jargon: complex, industry-specific language. Sites that are full of jargon are either trying to sell to a very technical audience or they are trying to impress you with technical talk. Either way, if you don’t understand what the page says and how the product can help you, then consider carefully if you need that product and how that vendor might act if you have a problem with the product.

Third, ignore formatting. As this is being written the product page format in vogue is the narrow column that runs down the middle of the browser window with solid color on both sides or maybe a background graphic on both sides. The copy is laced with superlatives, different color text, different sized text, and so on. Ignore all this. The pitch…

Simply the BEST dog food on the market!!!

…tells you absolutely nothing about why you might want to buy the product and what benefits it will have for your dog over and above table scraps or the cheapest brand you can buy at the local market (yes, I know dog lovers would not do either; I’m using hyperbole for effect here).

The same is true for most bold, different color text on product pages. Read right through the formatting and see what the words actually say.

In a similar vein, be careful with pages that go on and on and on. Most such pages use the techniques above to keep you reading until they get you down to the end where the final hard-sell is. By this time your eyes may have glazed over and the vendor hopes you’ll just click on the big “buy” link and give them your money.

Pictures should be considered to be words in disguise. Big, fancy product box pictures and other such page decorations are just that: decorations. Few products come in an actual box these days; most are direct downloads with the possibility of getting a backup CD and maybe abbreviated manual (usually an install guide and maybe a feature index) for an extra fee. Screen shots of the product may or may not be useful depending on what they show. Look carefully for meaningful pictures and not just random screen shots that really contain no meaningful information.

Look for links to other pages on the product site. One technique in use now is to bring users to a product landing page that stands alone and has no other links to any other page on the vendor’s website. The technique hopes to corral you into making a decision based on the landing page information alone. If this happens to you see if you can find other links manually. For example, if the URL is http://domain.com/product/productname.html and there are no links on productname.html then manually enter first http://domain.com/product/ and/or http://domain.com/ into your browser and see what page or pages those addresses bring up. What you are looking for are support links and maybe a knowledgebase about the product on the product’s website. A support forum may also be useful. Knowing what problems people have had with a particular piece of software and, perhaps more importantly, how they were solved (or not) should influence your purchase decision more than glowing praise from people you don’t know. If you can’t find such information on the company’s website you can search for it on the Web if you continue to feel the product is useful to you.

As advertising techniques get refined, the specifics of what to look for may change but the primary points on this page will continue to be important:

• The vendor wants to sell you something. It’s up to you to find out if that something will be of value to you.
• Words mean specific things. Don’t read more into the words on the page than is actually there.
• Watch the context of the words. Fancy formatting, nice pictures, and glowing endorsements tell you nothing about the product itself. Find that information instead — even if it’s on a different page than the product page.

How Do I Run Older Programs Under Windows?

Many older computer programs may not run correctly if you just click on the program’s executable file in Windows; this is particularly true of older game programs. There can be many reasons why. Perhaps the program uses DOS calls that XP does not know about. Perhaps there are graphic hardware considerations. Perhaps…who knows.

Indeed, some older DOS-based programs, in order to speed up the display, wrote directly to the computer’s hardware. These, Windows XP and newer operating systems will not allow to run at all. In order to run these you will have to find a computer with an older operating system.

For those in between, there is some hope in using Windows XP’s (and Vista’s) Compatibility Mode.

Open Windows Explorer and navigate to where the program is located. Then…

• Right click on the program file (the .EXE or .COM file).
• Select Properties from the menu that pops up.
• Select the Compatibility Tab in the dialog.
• Change the options so the program opens in Windows 95 or 98 compatibility mode. Note the other options in the dialog as you may have to experiment a bit and change some of them as well.

Basically, this action creates a PIF file that Windows uses to determine options to use to run the program in compatibility mode instead of native Windows 32-bit mode. Hopefully, this will allow the program to run.

DOSBox

There is another option for running older DOS programs under newer Windows operating systems: the DOSBox project. DOSBox emulates an Intel x86 PC. It is a developing option because the project is still refining the code. But, you can find it at its Sourceforge home…

http://www.dosbox.com/

If these suggestions don’t work for you, you are back to finding a computer with an older operating system.

How Do I Find Autostarting Applications?

Frequently when Windows starts a number of other programs start with it. Some of these you will see as small icons in the System Notification Area at the bottom right of your screen by the clock; for example…

Others may not leave an icon but run in the background anyhow. Using one of a number of utilities (or looking in the task manager = press the CTL-SHIFT-ESC keys together) usually displays their names. Often these are programs you want running in the background. Sometimes, however, a program that doesn’t have to autostart will impolitely install itself as autostarting without giving you the option. When this happens, how do you stop it from running every time you start Windows?

First, be certain you know the name of the program you are trying to stop from autostarting. If you just let the mouse cursor rest over an icon the name of the controlling program will usually pop up after a short period. If it doesn’t try right-clicking on the icon to see what menu pops up and work from there. Autostarting programs also usually have a counterpart in the Start|Programs menu; you can look for matching icons. Or in the Windows Task Manager (the window that pops up when you press the CTL-SHIFT-ESC keys together) you can find the names of running programs.

Once you have the program name there are several places to look for the command that starts it when Windows starts. Try them in order as some are more commonly used than others (and easier to work with):

 Startup Folder

Polite programs will install autostart shortcuts into the StartUp folder (\Windows\Start Menu\Programs\StartUp in XP and \Users\[user name]\AppData\Roaming\Microsoft\Windows\Start Menu\Programs\Startup in Vista). Any shortcut found in this folder when Windows starts will be run as part of the Windows startup routine. Open the Windows Explorer (right-click My Computer and pick Explore). Navigate to the above-named folder to see what’s there (you can get a quick look by clickingStart|Programs|StartUp). Edit as necessary (Computer Knowledge recommends you drag the shortcuts you are removing onto the desktop or into a temporary folder until you are certain you don’t need them; they’ll be easier to replace than recreate if you make a mistake).

Be careful. Some things may not be obvious. Try removing one thing at a time and then restarting the computer to see what happened. Changing more than one thing will make it difficult to detect which is at fault if problems occur.

One you probably should consider deleting would be Microsoft FindFast. That program is supposed to speed file searches in Office but more often than not is the source of problems.

 Using MSCONFIG

Microsoft provides one utility (MSCONFIG) that can manage some of the startup files found in the registry and other common locations. It’s not perfect but can be used for quick testing and diagnosis for startup files found in common locations.

Start the utility by clicking on Start|Run and then typing “msconfig” (without the quotes) into the dialog box that appears or, in Vista, just type it into the Start menu’s search box. When open, you should see a number of tabs that can be used to examine the various programs and services that start when Windows starts. Check each tab for the program or service you are looking for. If found, uncheck it and then click OK to close the utility. When you do, you will be asked to restart to make the change active. Do so and see if this fixes your problem. If so, you can just leave the entry unchecked or you can look in the locations below to find the specific entry and actually delete it.

 Registry

The registry contains much information of importance to both Windows and programs running under Windows. For this reason one has to take great care in working with the registry. A backup is critical before doing anything with the registry. This is easily done from within the registry editor.

Start the registry editor by clicking on Start|Run and then typing “regedit” (without the quotes) into the dialog box that appears or, in Vista, just type it into the Start menu’s search box. Click OK or hit return. Navigation in the registry editor works just like navigation in Windows Explorer. First navigate to the key:

HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\SOFTWARE\Microsoft\Windows\CurrentVersion\Run

There you will see, in the right window, more programs that Windows runs at startup. If you intend to delete or modify any of these entries first export the key to a file you can use to reinstate the entries should there be problems. With the Run key selected click on Registry|Export Registry File. Pick a name and location you can remember for the exported file and then export the key.

Now, edit the registry as necessary and then immediately restart Windows. If there are no problems, great; if there are problems double-click on the Run key registry file you created and then restart Windows. Double-clicking on the file will install it into the registry and restarting Windows should put things back the way they were.

Now, repeat the whole procedure above with the key:

HKEY_CURRENT_USER\SOFTWARE\Microsoft\Windows\CurrentVersion\Run

(Never said this would be easy!

 WINSTART.BAT

You remember batch files from DOS (if you are old enough — if not, see the CKnow tutorial on batch files). These are text files that run commands in them; line by line. If you have not found the autostart program you are looking for do a search for the file WINSTART.BAT. It will usually be in the root directory of the drive. If found while your computer is starting this file will be given control before Windows itself starts. The errant autostart program may be hiding here. Use any text editor to look at the contents of the file if one is found (this is rare but possible).

 AUTORUN.INF

An AUTORUN.INF file is designed to hold the information necessary to allow a disc, like a CD-ROM, to autostart when loaded. As the disc is detected by the operating system the AUTORUN.INF file is detected and the information in that file directs the operating system to, perhaps, start a particular program on the disc. This can be very convenient but it also can be a problem in that the operating system does not restrict itself to just CD-ROMs for AUTORUN.INF. If that file is found in the root directory of the system boot drive (usually C:\) then it will be accessed and the directions in the file followed during system boot. Thus, AUTORUN.INF becomes yet another way of autostarting something during Windows boot. If you find and need to delete an AUTORUN.INF file you may have to change its attributes first; if copied from a CD it’s likely to be a read-only file (right-click the file, choose “Properties” and uncheck “Read-only”).

 WIN.INI

This is a startup holdover from Windows 3.x. No matter; if found in the \Windows directory later versions of Windows will read and process the file. Navigate to the \Windows folder using Windows Explorer and look for a WIN.INI file. Use any text editor to look inside the file. What you are looking for is a line starting with either “load=” or “run=” in the section [windows] which is usually right at the start of the file.

If found, make a backup of the file and then edit those lines as necessary relative to your autostart program problems. Restart Windows and see if that fixes things. If not, use the backup to put things right and restart Windows to continue searching.

 AUTOEXEC.BAT and CONFIG.SYS

These startup leftovers from DOS still run on startup if found in the root directory of your main drive (usually C:\). While of little practical value they may contain older “real mode” drivers and programs that must load before Windows because the hardware these drivers control is not able to be reconfigured dynamically (Plug and Play). To see if any real mode drivers are active right-click on My Computer, select Properties, then click on the Performance tab (or, in Vista, the menu item of the same name). Look for any real mode drivers listed. If found, decide if you need the drivers and, if not, edit either AUTOEXEC.BAT or CONFIG.SYS to delete them (instead of deleting the line just put the letters REM and a space in front of the line so it’s not executed; makes it easier to reinstate the line if necessary).

The easiest way to check to see if these files are needed is to use Windows Explorer to rename them (right-click on the file and select Rename). Then, reboot and see if there are problems. If not, great; if there are follow the prompts to boot into Safe Mode (if needed) and then rename the files back to their original names. After restarting again the problems should disappear.

Final Notes

We’ve described a number of places programs that start automatically when Windows starts can hide. And, we’ve described how these places can be modified to stop these programs from autostarting. But, you need to know that Windows is a very complicated operating system and can be fairly sensitive to changes. It’s very important that you have a good backup before attempting to make any changes to any autostarting programs and then proceed with great caution; changing one thing at a time and then testing to see if the change caused any problems. This incremental approach will take much longer but is considerably safer.

Good luck.

10 things you have to know to be computer literate

Many of your users are coasting along without adequate computer knowledge. Help them close the gap by sharing this list of essential skills. 

It is tempting to think that because you have used a computer for a long time, you are "computer literate" or "computer savvy," but this is not the case. Here are 10 skills you absolutely must know to be considered computer literate. If you already know these, you should be helping others learn them as well!

1: Search engines

Using a search engine is more than typing in the address, putting a couple of keywords into the big text box, clicking Search, and choosing the first result. While that may work, it won't give you the best results much of the time. Learning the advanced search, Boolean operators, and how to discern good results from bad results goes a long way toward enabling you to use a computer as a powerful research tool.

2: Word processing

Word processing is one of the oldest uses for a computer. And it continues to be extremely important, even though in many ways its functions have been put into other applications. (For example, people may write more emails than documents, but the task is nearly identical.) It is tough to claim to be computer literate if the basic functions of word processing -- like spell check, table creation, and working with headers -- are outside your capabilities.

3: Spreadsheets

Spreadsheets were the killer application that got a lot of people willing to pony up big bucks for a PC in the early 1980s. Spreadsheets offer incredibly powerful analysis possibilities... if you know how to use them for more than storing the holiday card address list. (Okay, I use Excel for that too.) Being able to use formulas, references, and macros can turn a "grid of numbers" into actionable information in the hands of the right person.

4: Browser basics

It is almost painful to watch some "computer savvy" people operate a Web browser. The most obvious goof is going to a search engine to type in the address of the site they want to go to. But folks are unaware of a lot of other things they do that make the Internet more difficult than it needs to be. Mastering techniques like opening links in new windows, using bookmarks, editing URLs to perform navigation, clearing the browser cache, and understanding common error messages will give you access to a world of unlimited information instead of keeping you stuck with only what Web site designers make obvious.

5: Virus/malware scanning

Much of typical computer maintenance is automated or unneeded at this point, but it is still essential to understand how to check a system for nasty bugs, spyware, and other malicious applications. While the scanning tools come with real-time monitors, something can still slip onto the system before the scanner has the right filter for it. So it's critical to know how to trigger a manual virus/malware scan, as well as how to use alternative systems, spot signs of an infection, and other similar tasks.

6: Common keyboard commands

If you do not know how to copy/paste without a mouse, you are not computer literate. Sorry! Every operating system has some universal keyboard commands, and while knowing them won't add 30 minutes back into your day, it will take a lot of the "friction" out of using a computer. Learning these commands is more a matter of routine than anything else; a short tutorial done once a day for a week will probably be enough to put you in the habit, and it will make you a happier user.

7: Basic hardware terminology

It is tough to have someone help you with a problem when you tell them that your "hard drive" is unplugged, when you really mean "the computer." There are a number of common hardware misunderstandings out there, and while some are understandable (for instance, confusing a NIC with a modem -- the cables look similar and they serve the same purpose, networking), knowing basic hardware terminology is a must-have skill to be a savvy user.

8: Simple networking diagnosis

Networking problems create the most common trouble with most computers. While you don't need to be able to program a Cisco router, you should know how to:

• Determine your IP address
• Verify physical connectivity to the network
• Check that you have a logical connection to the network
• Find out what path network traffic takes to get to its destination
• Translate from DNS names to IP addresses

9: How to hook it up

Despite the color coding of connections and the fact that most cords can be plugged into only one hole, tons of people still can't hook up a computer. It is tough to claim to be computer literate if you can't even get it hooked up and turned on without some help.

10: Security/privacy 101

It is a dangerous world out there! You absolutely must know how to protect yourself from attackers on the Internet and keep your personal data private. Everything from knowing to check a link before you click it to verifying that encryption is being used to transmit sensitive data to researching sites before giving them your personal data are all critical skills for the modern computer user. If you do not know how to keep yourself safe, you need to learn how.

What else?

Does this cover the basic requirements of computer literacy or would you add a few more skills to the list? Share your thoughts with other TechRepublic members.